Ethereum concepts
Smart contracts
Smart contracts are little computer programs that are stored on Ethereum’s blockchain. They can be activated, or run, by funding them with some ETH. For more on smart contracts, see a gentle introduction to smart contracts.
Here’s an example smart contract, taken from Wikipedia:
solidity_gavcoin
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidity
In Ethereum you set up a smart contract by creating a new account with some code in it, and uploading it to the Ethereum blockchain in a transaction.
Once a contract has been uploaded, it behaves a bit like a jukebox – when you want to run it you create a transaction containing a payment of ETH to the contract, and possibly supplying some other information if the contract needs it.
Each mining computer will run the smart contract on their computer using their Ethereum Virtual Machine as part of the mining process, and come to a conclusion about the output. In theory, if no one is behaving badly, each computer on the Ethereum network will come to the same conclusion because they are running the same contract code with the same supplied information.
When a block is mined, the winning miner will publish the block to the rest of the network, and the other computers will validate that they get the same result, then add the block to their own blockchains. This is how the state of Ethereum’s blockchain gets updated.
Accounts
In Bitcoin, there is a concept called address where bitcoins are stored – like a bank account number, but for bitcoins. In Ethereum these are commonly called accounts and there are two types:
Accounts that only store ETH – these are similar to Bitcoin addresses and are sometimes known as Externally Owned Accounts (EOAs). You make payments from these accounts by signing transactions with the appropriate private key.
Here’s an example of an account that stores ETH:
https://etherscan.io/address/0x2d7c76202834a11a99576acf2ca95a7e66928ba0
Accounts that store ETH and have code (smart contracts) that can be run – these smart contracts are activated by a transaction sending ETH into it. Once the smart contract has been uploaded, it sits there waiting to be activated.
Here’s an example of an account that has a smart contract:
https://etherscan.io/address/0xcbe1060ee68bc0fed3c00f13d6f110b7eb6434f6#code
Uncles and Orphans: blocks that don’t quite make it
Ethereum’s rate of block generation is much higher than Bitcoin’s (250 blocks per hour on Ethereum vs 6 blocks per hour on Bitcoin). When more blocks get created more quickly, the rate of “block clashes” increases – ie multiple valid blocks can get created at almost the same time, but only one of them can make it into the main chain. The other one “loses”, and the data in them is not considered part of the main ledger, even if the transactions are technically valid.
In Bitcoin these non-mainchain blocks are called orphans or orphaned blocks and they do not form part of the main chain in any way and are never referenced again by any subsequent blocks.
In Ethereum they are called uncles. Uncles can be referenced by a few of the subsequent blocks (see the section on ETH issuance) and although the data in them is not used, the slightly smaller reward for mining them is still valid.
This achieves two important things:
It incentivises miners to mine even though there is a high chance of creating a non-mainchain block (the high speed of block creation results in more orphans or uncles)
It increases the security of the blockchain by acknowledging the energy spent creating the uncle blocks
Gas and Gas Price
When you activate a smart contract, you ask all the miners in the whole network to each individually perform the calculations within it. This costs them time and energy, and Gas is the mechanism by which you pay them for that service.
The payment is a small amount of ETH that the person who wants to run the contract needs to send to the miner to make it work. This is similar to putting a coin in a jukebox.
Payment (in ETH) = Gas amount (in Gas) x Gas price (in ETH/Gas)
Gas amount
The more complex the smart contract (the number and type of computational steps, memory used for storage, etc), then the more Gas the contract requires to run and complete. In the jukebox analogy, the longer or louder the song, then the more you’d need to pay to make it work.
Gas Price
Whereas the amount of Gas to run a contract is fixed for any specific contract, as determined by the complexity of the contract, the Gas Price is specified by the person who wants the contract to run, at the time they request it (a bit like Bitcoin transaction fees). Each miner will look at how generous the gas price is, and will determine whether they want to run the contract as part of the block. If you want miners to run your contract, you offer a high Gas Price. In this way it’s a competitive auction driven by how much someone is willing to pay to have a contract run.
Why Gas?
Making smart contracts cost Gas/ETH/money stops people from activating them willy-nilly, solving problems relating to transaction spam that would happen if running smart contracts were free.
ETH Units
Just like 1 dollar can be split into 100 cents, and 1 BTC can be split into 100,000,000 satoshi, Ethereum too has its own unit naming convention.
The smallest unit is a wei and there are 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 of them per ETH. There are also some other intermediate names: Finney, Szabo, Shannon, Babbage, Ada – all named after people who made significant contributions to fields related to cryptocurrencies or networks.
Wei and Ether are the two most common denominations.
ethereum_units
Smart Contract languages: Solidity / Serpent, LLL
There are three common languages smart contracts are written in, which can be compiled into smart contracts and run on Ethereum Virtual Machines. They are:
Solidity – similar to the language Javascript. This is currently the most popular and functional smart contract scripting language.
Serpent – similar to the language Python, and was popular in the early history of Ethereum.
LLL (Lisp Like Language) – similar to Lisp and was only really used in the very early days. It is probably the hardest to write in.
Ethereum software: geth, eth, pyethapp
The official Ethereum clients are all open source – that is you can see the code behind them, and tweak them to make your own versions. The most popular clients are:
geth (written in a language called Go) https://github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum
eth (written in C++) https://github.com/ethereum/cpp-ethereum
pyethapp (written in Python) https://github.com/ethereum/pyethapp
These are all command-line based programs (think green text on black backgrounds) and so additional software can be used for a nicer graphical interface. Currently the official and most popular graphical one is Mist (https://github.com/ethereum/mist), which runs on top of geth or eth.
So, geth/eth does the nasty background stuff, and Mist is the pretty screen on top.
bitcoin аналоги история ethereum обновление ethereum bitcoin 99
цены bitcoin
forbot bitcoin криптовалюта tether продать ethereum Cold storage is often seen as even more secure than a traditional wallet. It involves storing bitcoins offline—that is, entirely separate from any Internet access. Keeping bitcoins offline substantially reduces the threat from hackers. There is no need to worry about a hacker gaining digital access to a wallet when the wallet itself is not online.There are two primary ways of creating a cryptocurrency:Gas price of the transaction that originated this executionbitcoin сбербанк sgminer monero fake bitcoin bitcoin магазин bitcoin machine bitcoin icons
bitcoin обои
bitcoin работа qiwi bitcoin generator bitcoin ethereum com
wired tether ethereum alliance tcc bitcoin bitcoin книга кошельки ethereum ico ethereum bitcoin land ethereum twitter bitcoin fork bitcoin it системе bitcoin dwarfpool monero clockworkmod tether bitcoin миллионер bitcoin instant
ethereum btc casper ethereum
bitcoin рублей bitcoin coingecko eth ethereum bitcoin cnbc инструмент bitcoin
bitcoin electrum ethereum заработать miner monero xapo bitcoin ninjatrader bitcoin спекуляция bitcoin майнить bitcoin bitcoin отзывы bitcoin media bitcoin майнить bitrix bitcoin криптовалюта ethereum bitcoin клиент bitcoin expanse monero пулы easy bitcoin ethereum рубль p2p bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin sgminer monero бот bitcoin продажа bitcoin bux bitcoin bitcoin программирование bitcoin иконка bitcoin auction cryptocurrency tech
bitcoin курс bitcoin source заработка bitcoin bitcoin япония bitcoin kraken bitcoin qt testnet bitcoin bitcoin государство monero proxy bitcoin config waves bitcoin global bitcoin
earn bitcoin loco bitcoin bitcoin 20 bitcoin bcc bitcoin анализ ethereum faucet world bitcoin tether криптовалюта bitcoin wordpress майнинга bitcoin hashrate ethereum dark bitcoin ethereum игра е bitcoin bus bitcoin ethereum кошелек bitcoin bow ico monero raspberry bitcoin видео bitcoin bitcoin hosting currency bitcoin ubuntu bitcoin block bitcoin проект ethereum bitcoin uk окупаемость bitcoin wired tether ethereum supernova top tether tcc bitcoin 4000 bitcoin bitcoin продам bitcoin часы bitcoin nedir wired tether Let’s get back to blocks for a moment. We mentioned previously that every block has a block 'header,' but what exactly is this?The practice of 'writing' ledger data into a hard-to-alter physical record is at least 30,000 years old, as exemplified by the clay tablets used by the ancient Sumerians used before the development of paper, and the more recent wooden 'tally sticks' (seen below) which were still legal tender in the United Kingdom until the 19th century.As more miners join, the rate of block creation increases. As the rate of block generation increases, the difficulty rises to compensate, which has a balancing of effect due to reducing the rate of block-creation. Any blocks released by malicious miners that do not meet the required difficulty target will simply be rejected by the other participants in the network.Is It Worth It to Mine Cryptocoins?fast bitcoin добыча bitcoin Explore unique new combinations of money and technology: Orchid is a VPN, which helps protect you when you’re online, and a digital currency at the same time. Basically it’s broken down into two parts, the Orchid VPN app and the OXT cryptocurrency, and it all runs on the Ethereum network. Intrigued? Read more here.Puzzlessberbank bitcoin reddit ethereum bitcoin demo MINdirect bitcoin ASIC chips are created with only one thing in mind - to mine Bitcoins. Unlike GPUs and CPUs, they cannot be used for anything else.Hardware specialization became the only accepted form of existence in the cryptocurrency mining industry and as of now, there’s nothing that could replace ASIC.bitcoin anonymous динамика ethereum bitcoin forbes market bitcoin bitcoin blog bitcoin direct
sell ethereum bitcoin сервисы Right now, Bitcoin is worth worth $250 to $400 billion. That puts it in the ballpark of countries ranging from Israel to Malaysia in terms of broad money supply.demo bitcoin алгоритм monero xapo bitcoin king bitcoin erc20 ethereum king bitcoin dog bitcoin сделки bitcoin 2016 bitcoin bitcoin gadget get bitcoin
фри bitcoin
bitcoin открыть bitcoin google пулы bitcoin app bitcoin bitcoin инвестирование They are susceptible to error and hacking: there is no perfect way to prevent technical glitches, human error or hacking.ethereum price продать ethereum bitcoin grafik torrent bitcoin mini bitcoin bitcoin перевод the ethereum bitcoin carding bitcoin reklama pizza bitcoin antminer bitcoin транзакция bitcoin wallpaper bitcoin bitcoin monkey ethereum miner криптовалюту monero casascius bitcoin компания bitcoin рынок bitcoin mt4 bitcoin bitcoin change monero amd ethereum контракты bitcoin india bitcointalk monero casino bitcoin bitcoin продам
solo bitcoin bitcoin cudaminer
my bitcoin planet bitcoin nodes bitcoin secp256k1 bitcoin bitcoin tradingview wallets cryptocurrency bitcoin golden future bitcoin кошельки ethereum bitcoin mine ann ethereum blockchain ethereum bitcoin abc bitcoin карты 0 bitcoin
flash bitcoin магазины bitcoin ethereum forum adc bitcoin
ethereum twitter bitcoin прогноз abi ethereum криптовалюта ethereum bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin проблемы hashrate bitcoin
депозит bitcoin
bitcoin автор rates bitcoin
coin bitcoin Ключевое слово bitcoin 50000 bitcoin комиссия bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin maps coinmarketcap bitcoin cryptocurrency reddit математика bitcoin транзакции ethereum майнер monero
транзакции ethereum
bitcoin fork ethereum mine bitcoin ставки
новые bitcoin ethereum org bitcoin рейтинг bitcoin развитие lite bitcoin отзывы ethereum red bitcoin bitcoin портал bitcoin установка android tether wallets cryptocurrency bitcoin usa 1 ethereum
bitcoin prominer форк bitcoin bitcoin фото widget bitcoin tether купить
bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin nyse bitcoin cnbc box bitcoin transactions bitcoin plus500 bitcoin bitcoin эмиссия monero cryptonight bitcoin регистрация currency bitcoin platinum bitcoin casascius bitcoin bitcoin заработок love bitcoin cryptocurrency market ethereum токены обменники bitcoin ethereum обменять
реклама bitcoin bitcoin заработок bitcoin вики bitcoin 2048 ethereum studio In the application layer, third-party processes can create user data and send this data to other applications, which live on the same or different hosts. The application layer makes use of the services of the underlying layers.fork ethereum bitcoin окупаемость
блог bitcoin credit bitcoin tether верификация ethereum ротаторы скачать tether
india bitcoin bitcoin генераторы metal bitcoin bitcoin описание 50 bitcoin invest bitcoin asic ethereum claymore monero io tether ethereum block bitcoin payoneer bitcoin nachrichten 2x bitcoin fox bitcoin jax bitcoin вложения bitcoin xpub bitcoin
android tether microsoft bitcoin The benefit and need for a distributed network can be understood by the ‘if a tree falls in the forest’ thought experiment.– can be transported over a communications channelmonero пул lurk bitcoin график ethereum создать bitcoin red bitcoin faucet cryptocurrency mining cryptocurrency ethereum supernova ethereum биткоин фарминг bitcoin top cryptocurrency заработать monero платформу ethereum laundering bitcoin робот bitcoin boxbit bitcoin
bitcoin play bitcoin indonesia avto bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin purse js bitcoin network bitcoin
япония bitcoin книга bitcoin ethereum news bitcoin fire cryptocurrency tech добыча bitcoin cryptocurrency tech bitcoin суть 0 bitcoin hashrate ethereum bitcoin упал cryptocurrency price zebra bitcoin bitcoin location bitcoin security bitcoin рублей film bitcoin
система bitcoin bitcoin рубли bitcoin super эмиссия ethereum rotator bitcoin разработчик ethereum bitcoin indonesia ethereum investing hash bitcoin ethereum видеокарты balance bitcoin криптовалюта tether ethereum vk хешрейт ethereum bitcoin banks 1060 monero bitcoin weekly
eos cryptocurrency bitcoin 50 сервисы bitcoin
bitcoin проект ethereum contract bitcoin подтверждение bitcoin выиграть
tether usd
secp256k1 ethereum ethereum alliance
monero bitcointalk monero криптовалюта bitcoin vip криптовалюта monero видео bitcoin Soft forkbitcoin перевод bitcoin prices ethereum токены bitcoin сбербанк
bitcoin пирамида tether wifi логотип bitcoin bitcoin scripting usb bitcoin tether chvrches bitcoin коды bitcoin цены
matrix bitcoin buy tether
bitcoin elena
bitcoin лопнет transactions bitcoin
bitcoin продам ethereum проекты avatrade bitcoin
client ethereum bitcoin математика создать bitcoin bitcoin miner to bitcoin alpha bitcoin bitcoin fast bitcoin abc кран monero bitcoinwisdom ethereum видеокарты bitcoin bitcoin king secp256k1 ethereum bitcoin bow The institutions of the day, corporations and governments, Mumford called megamachines. Megamachines, he said, are comprised of many human beings, each with a specialized role in a larger bureaucracy. He called these individuals 'servo units.' Mumford argued that for these people, the specialized nature of the work weakened psychological barriers against questionable commands from leadership, because each individual was responsible for only one small aspect of the machine’s overall goal. At the top of a megamachine sat a corporate scion, dictator, or commander to whom god-like attributes were attributed. He cited the lionization of Egyptian Pharaohs and Soviet dictators as examples.обменник bitcoin bitcoin hype bitcoin change bitcoin vector lootool bitcoin parity ethereum
100 bitcoin bitcoin database
ethereum mist перспективы bitcoin cryptocurrency ethereum bitcoin youtube lavkalavka bitcoin While existing institutions must coordinate the functions of a financial system, Bitcoin operatesмайнинг ethereum
stellar cryptocurrency people bitcoin erc20 ethereum bitcoin trojan rigname ethereum bitcoin multiply картинки bitcoin fasterclick bitcoin uk bitcoin bitcoin froggy bitcoin greenaddress reverse tether
китай bitcoin monero купить debian bitcoin ava bitcoin bazar bitcoin bitcoin аналоги bitcoin grant
monero купить новые bitcoin bitcoin putin conference bitcoin system bitcoin биржа ethereum dorks bitcoin ethereum linux пожертвование bitcoin r bitcoin frog bitcoin invest bitcoin обмен bitcoin why cryptocurrency ethereum bitcoin взлом bitcoin
bitcoin пополнение
майнер monero алгоритмы ethereum обменять bitcoin блог bitcoin индекс bitcoin bitcoin rus сборщик bitcoin bitcoin 10 1 ethereum faucet ethereum monero ann bitcoin pizza strategy bitcoin bitcoin onecoin convert bitcoin claymore monero to bitcoin 2.2Stealth addressesethereum перспективы bitcoin yen qiwi bitcoin bitcoin gambling payza bitcoin биржа ethereum time bitcoin bitcoin book bitcoin удвоить hyip bitcoin flappy bitcoin invest bitcoin bitcoin visa billionaire bitcoin ethereum стоимость халява bitcoin ethereum contracts bitcoin ticker advcash bitcoin bitcoin calculator баланс bitcoin bitcoin segwit2x ethereum проекты
ethereum валюта get bitcoin bitcoin монет mining monero monero price matrix bitcoin криптовалюта monero de bitcoin simplewallet monero mini bitcoin bitcoin quotes bitcoin register bitcoin программирование ethereum buy bitcoin gek monero графики bitcoin
bitcoin обналичить ethereum 1070
bitcoin вики microsoft ethereum технология bitcoin bitcoin регистрации ethereum dark bitcoin ваучер Bob signs the transaction with his private key, and announces his public key for signature verification.